青草盈盈泪有魄，春来迟，春已末。 红莲依依水无波，夏归早，夏已过。1.Linguistics(语言学) is the scientific study of language.
2.One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.
3.A linguistic study is descriptive(描述性) if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive(说明性) if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.
4.The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic(共时) study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic(历时) study.
5.langue(语言) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole(言语) refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.
6.Competence(能力) is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance(行为) is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
7.General linguistics(一般语言学) is the study of language as a whole.
8.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
9.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.
10.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
11.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
12.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
13.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.
14.Sociolinguistics(社会语言学) is the study of the relationship between language and society.
15.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学)is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.
16.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.
17.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.
18.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.
II. Phonetics(语音学)
19.Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.
20.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.
21.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学)we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经) and the brain.
22. The classification of Consonants(辅音)
Places of Manners of articulation: plosive(暴破音), nasal(鼻音), trill(颤音), lateral(边音), fricative(摩擦音), approximant(近似音), affricate(破擦音).
Places of articulation(发音部位): bilabial,(双唇音), Labiodentals(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), retroflex(卷舌音), palate-alveolar(上齿龈音), palatal(上颚音), velar(软腭音) uvular(小舌音）, glottal(声门音).
23. The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)
III. Phonology(音韵学)
24. phonemes(音素):a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.
2. Allophones(音位变体):The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.
3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体): word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.
4. Free variation (自由变异):If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.
5. Complementary distribution(补充分类):Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment
6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位):the study of phonological properties(性质)of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节), stress,(重音) word stress, sentence stress. pitch (音调) and intonation（语调）.
IV. Morphology(词法)
1. inflection(构形法): the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀)
2. Word-formation(构词): the processes(过程) of word variations signaling lexical relationships(表明词法关系). They are compound(合成) and derivation (派生).
3. Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.
4. Allomorph(同质异象变体): some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
5. Types of morphemes: They are roots(词根), affix(词缀) and stem(词干).
6. Lexicon(语言词汇): in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.
7. Closed-class words(封闭性) and open-class words(开放性):the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上) indefinite or unlimited.
8. Word class(词性): It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.
9. Lexeme(词位): the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
10. Idiom(习语，成语): Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序) which is semantically(语义上) and often syntactically(句法上) restricted(限制).
11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的) co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.
