青草盈盈泪有魄，春来迟，春已末。 红莲依依水无波，夏归早，夏已过。Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。
free morpheme(自由语素):-------Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitue words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
bound morpheme(粘着语素): -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs中的-s, national 中的-al, disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)
Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words
root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干
（1）root(词根): the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。
All words contain a root morpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。
A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning ; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。
（2）affix(词缀): the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)
Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。
Prefix前缀----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini- ; 前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。
Exception: be-; en-; em-; Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.
For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich---enrich; body---embody
Suffix后缀:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise; 后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。
Infix中缀: foot/feet; goose/geese ;–oo-; -ee- ;Infix is an affix which is inserted within a stem.
Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:
屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：
-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数
-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数
-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时
-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时
-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级
-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级
-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格
Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。
Syntax（句法）
In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
immediate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）:IC analysis for short,the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.
先把句子分析为直接成分--词组或短语，再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
endocentric construction(向心结构)
one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.
其分布和它的一贯成分的分布，相同或详尽，有一部分是整体的核心或中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构。
2.exocentric construction（离心结构）
a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.
它的分布跟其中任何成分的分布都不同
并列句有两个或两个以上的主谓结构。这些主谓结构之间的关系是并列的、对等的。
复合句（Complex Sentence）
复合句明显地不同于简单句，因为它有两个或两个以上的主谓结构。从表面上看，它与并列句相似。其实不然，后者的几个主谓结构之间的关系是并列的、对等的；而复合句中的主谓结构之间的关系不是并列的、对等的，其中只有一个主谓结构是主要的，其他的主谓结构都从属于那个主要的主谓结构。那个主要的主谓结构称作句子的主句（Main Clause）；其他的主谓结构称作句子的从句或子句（Subordinate Clause）。
Lexical categories(词类)
Major lexical categories are open categories in the sense that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for.English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories. Major: noun, verb, adjective, adverb Minor: determiner[限定词], auxiliary[助动词]，preposition, pronoun, conjunction, and interjection[感叹词]
Phrasal categories(短语分类)
In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase(NP), verb phrase(VB), prepositional phrase(PP), and adjecive phrase(AP).
1.X-bar theory（X标杆理论）refers to NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P.
The rule modified as: XP → (Specifier)X(Complement).
X-bar理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X-bar规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。
主要词类：
Noun (N) 名词：student
Verb (V) 动词：like
Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall
Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly
附加:phrase(P)短语：如动词短语Verb phrase（VP)
次要词类：
Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his
Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will
Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over
Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine
Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while
Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh
2.phrase structure rule(短语结构规则)，也称之为“改写规则”（rewrite rule）
先看以下的几个例子的词类演绎过程：
S→NP-VP
NP→D-N
VP→V-PP
PP→P-NP
以上各个式子中的箭头“→”读作“改写为”：
S→NP-VP表示“句子S改写为名次短语NP和动词短语VP”；
NP→D-N表示“名词短语NP改写为限定词NP和名词N”；
VP→V-PP表示“动词短语VP改写为动词V和介词短语PP”；
PP→P-NP表示“介词短语PP改写为介词P和名词短语NP”。
以上所表示的句子结构特殊表达法称之为改写规则，也叫短语结构规则
3.Transformational rules（转换规则）
4.D-structure(D结构) : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.
